Paddles Ready

Ethanol fuel

Chemistry
Structure of the ethanol molecule. All connections are simple connections
The glucose (a sugar simple) is created at the plant through photosynthesis.
C6H12O6 + 6 CO2 6 H2O + light + 6 O2
During fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + heat
During combustion of ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat:
C2H5OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat
After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced for each molecule glucose, and adding the three reactions together, there is an equal number of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for the production and consumption of ethanol is just:
heat, light
The heat of combustion of ethanol is used to actuate the engine through the expansion heated gases. You could say that sunlight is used to run the engine.
Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. Fructose, sugar simple fermentation also suffers. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented, after breaking them in by the hydrolysis of glucose or fructose molecules that compose them. Starch and cellulose are molecules which are strings of molecules of glucose and sucrose (ordinary table sugar) is a glucose molecule linked to a molecule of fructose. The energy to create the fructose in the plant, ultimately comes from the metabolism of glucose created by photosynthesis, and thus the sunlight provides the energy generated by the fermentation of these other molecules.
Ethanol can also be produced industrially from ethylene (ethylene). Addition of water the ethylene double bond converts the ethanol:
CH2 = CH2 + H2O CH3CH2OH
This is done in the presence of an acid that catalyzes the reaction, but not is consumed. Ethylene is produced from oil by steam cracking.
When ethanol is burned in the atmosphere instead of pure oxygen, other chemical reactions occur with different components of the atmosphere such as N2. This leads to the production of nitrous oxides NOx, a major air pollutant.
Sources
View Main article: Energy crop
Harvesting sugar cane
Cornfield in South Africa
Switchgrass
Ethanol is a renewable energy source because energy is generated using a feature sunlight, which is naturally replenished. Creation of ethanol starts with photosynthesis causing a raw material, such as sugar cane or corn to grow. These raw materials are processed into ethanol.
About 5% of ethanol produced worldwide in 2003 was actually one of petroleum products. It is made by catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as catalyst. It can also be obtained via ethylene or acetylene, from calcium carbide, coal, oil, gas and other sources. Two million tons of petroleum-derived ethanol are produced annually. The main suppliers are plants in the United States, Europe and South Africa Ethanol, derived from petroleum (synthetic ethanol) is chemically identical to bio-ethanol and can be differentiated only by radiocarbon dating.
Bio-ethanol is usually obtained from the conversion of raw materials based on carbon. raw materials agriculture are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis, provided that all minerals necessary for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to earth. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain sorghum, switchgrass, barley, flax, hemp, potato, sweet potato, cassava, sunflower, fruits, molasses, corn, feed grains, wheat straw, cotton, other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and crops, which has the best evaluation of the wheel well.
An alternative process to produce bio-ethanol from algae is being developed by Algenol company. Instead of increasing the yield of algae and then yeast and algae to grow in sunlight and produce ethanol directly which is removed without killing the algae. It is claimed that the process can produce 6,000 liters per hectare per year, compared to 400 liters for the production of corn.
Currently, the first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn use only a small portion of the corn plant: the corn kernels are removed from the plant Corn and only the starch, which represents about 50% by weight of seed is processed into ethanol. Two types of the production processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast to convert plant cellulose into ethanol, while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the whole plant to either a liquid bio-oil or a synthesis gas. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such as grass, wood or agricultural residues such as straw.
Process production
See also: the problems associated with ethanol derived from corn
The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are: fermentation (yeast) microbial sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see alcohol fuel mixtures, below) and denaturing (optional). Before fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.
Fermentation
Main article: Ethanol fermentation
Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of sugar. Microbial fermentation is currently only work directly with the sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose are both made of sugar, and can in principle be converted into sugars for fermentation. Currently, only the sugar (sugar cane, for example) and starch (corn, for example) servings can be economically converted. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where part of a plant cellulose is broken down into sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol.
Distillation
Ethanol plant in West Burlington, Iowa
Sertozinho ethanol plant in Brazil.
For ethanol to be used as a fuel, and water must be removed. Most of the water is removed by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to training of an ethanol-water azeotrope low boiling point. The 95.6% m / m (96.5% v / v) ethanol m, 4.4% / m (3.5% v / v) mixture of water can be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol is miscible with gasoline, then the fraction of water is usually removed from treatment to burn in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines.
Dehydration
There are basically five cases of dehydration to remove water of azeotropic ethanol / water. The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called azeotropic distillation, and consists of adding benzene or cyclohexane to the mixture. When these components are added to the mixture, it forms a heterogeneous azeotropic mixture in equilibrium vapor-liquid-liquid when distilled to produce anhydrous ethanol at the bottom of the column and a mixture of water vapor and cyclohexane / benzene. When condensed, it becomes a mixture of two liquid phases. Another initial method, called extractive distillation, consists of adding a ternary component that will increase the relative volatility of ethanol. When the mixture ternary is distilled, it will produce anhydrous ethanol on the flux upper spine.
With increasing attention being paid to saving energy, many methods have been proposed to avoid all together distillation for dehydration. Of these methods, a third method was introduced and passed by a majority of ethanol plants modern. This new process uses molecular sieves to remove water from ethanol fuel. In this process, ethanol vapor pressure passes through a sieve bed of spheres molecular. The bead pores are sized to allow water absorption, excluding ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum to remove the absorbed water. Two beds are used so that one is available to absorb water, while the other is being regenerated. This dehydration technology can realize energy savings of 3,000 btus / gallon (840 kJ / l) compared to the previous azeotropic distillation.
Technology
motors to on ethanol
Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles, though it can be used to move vehicles such as tractors, boats and airplanes. The consumption of Ethanol (E100) in an engine is about 51% higher than petrol since the energy per unit volume of ethanol is 34% lower than petrol. However, the highest rates compression in an alcohol engine only allow an increased power and better fuel economy than could be achieved at lower compression ratios. In general, alcohol only engines are tuned to give slightly better power and torque output than gasoline engines. In flexible fuel vehicles, the lowest compression ratio requires tunings that give the same result when using either gasoline or hydrated ethanol. For maximum use of the benefits of ethanol, a rate much higher compression should be used, which would make it unsuitable for motor gasoline use. When ethanol fuel availability allows compression high-ethanol-powered vehicles just to be practical, the fuel efficiency of engines should be equal to or greater than current gasoline engines. compression Motor current spike in ethanol projects are only about 20-30% less fuel efficient than their gasoline counterparts.
A 2004 study by MIT and a document Previous published by the Society of Automotive Engineers identify a method to explore the characteristics of fuel ethanol substantially better than mixing with gasoline. The method has the ability to leverage the use of alcohol to obtain a definite improvement on the cost-effectiveness of hybrid electric. The improvement is the use of fuel double direct injection of pure alcohol (or azeotrope or E85) and gasoline in any proportion up to 100% of both, in a turbo-compression, the small engine displacement and performance similar to an engine with twice the displacement. Each fuel is made separately with a much smaller tank for alcohol. High compression (which increases the efficiency) gasoline engine at cruise conditions of low power. The alcohol is injected directly into the cylinders (and Gasoline injection simultaneously reduced) only when necessary to eliminate nock, as when they are very fast. Cylinder direct injection raises the classification already high octane of ethanol by an effective 130. Calculated on the overall reduction of gasoline use and CO2 emissions is 30%. The turnaround time on consumer cost 04:01 shows an improvement by turbo-diesel and an improvement of more than 05:01 hybrid. Moreover, problems of water absorption in the pre-mixed gasoline (causing phase separation), problems of supply relationships mix multiple starting and cold weather are avoided.
Ethanol's higher octane allows an increase in the proportion of a compression engine for increased thermal efficiency. In one study, complex engine controls and increased recirculation gases allowed a compression ratio of 19.5 for fuels ranging from pure ethanol for E50. Thermal efficiency up to about a diesel engine that has been achieved. The outcome is the MPG (miles per gallon) of ethanol vehicle to be dedicated almost the same as a petrol.
Since 1989 there has also been ethanol engines based on the principle Operating diesel in Sweden. They are mainly used in city buses, but also in distribution trucks and refuse collection. The engines, by Scania, have a compression rate changed, and the fuel (known as ED95) used is a mixture of 93.6% ethanol and 3.6% ignition improver and 2.8% denaturants. The ignition improver makes it possible for the fuel to ignite the diesel combustion cycle. Then, you can also use energy efficiency of the principle of diesel ethanol. These motors have been used in the UK by the reading of Transport, but the use of bioethanol fuel is being phased out.why
Engine cold start during the winter
The 2008 Honda Civic Brazilian flex-fuel has direct access to the exterior secondary tank shell gasoline in the front right hand, the corresponding port of the fuel tank is indicated by the arrow.
High ethanol blends present a problem to achieve a vapor pressure sufficient to vaporize the fuel and spark plugs during cold weather (from ethanol tends to increase the enthalpy of vaporization of the fuel). When the vapor pressure is less than 45 kPa starting a cold engine becomes difficult. To avoid this problem in temperatures below 11 degrees Celsius (59 F), and to reduce higher emissions of ethanol during cold weather, both the U.S. and European markets as the maximum approved E85 blend to be used in their flexible fuel vehicles, and they are optimized to work in such a mixture. In severe cold climates, the blending of ethanol in the U.S. that a seasonal reduction of E70 for these very cold regions, although it is sold as E85. In places where temperatures drop below -12 C (10 F) during the winter, we recommend installing a heating system of the engine, both for gasoline and E85 vehicles. Sweden has a similar seasonal decrease, but the content of ethanol in the mixture is reduced to E75 during the winter months.
Brazilian flex fuel vehicles can run on ethanol blends up to E100, which is hydrous ethanol (up to 4% water), which causes the vapor pressure to fall more fast compared to E85 vehicles. As a result, the Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles are built with a secondary fuel tank located near engine. During a cold start of gasoline alone is injected to avoid problems starting in cold temperatures. This is especially necessary for users of southern and central regions of Brazil where temperatures often drop below 15 degrees Celsius (59 F) during winter. An improved generation of flex-fuel engine was launched in 2009, which eliminates the need for the secondary tank of gas storage. In March 2009 Volkswagen Polo of Brazil launched the E-Flex, the Brazilian model of fuel flex tank without first auxiliary cold start.
blends of ethanol fuel
For more details on this subject, see common ethanol fuel mixtures.
hydrous ethanol gasoline type C price table for use in Brazil
To avoid engine stall due to "slug" of water in the fuel lines interrupt the flow of fuel, the fuel must exist as a single phase. The fraction of water that an ethanol-gasoline fuel can contain no extra phase separation with the percentage of ethanol .. This shows, for example, that E30 can have up to about 2% water. If more than about 71% ethanol, the rest can be any proportion of water or gasoline and phase separation does not occur. However, fuel consumption decreases with water content increased. The solubility Increased water with high content of ethanol permits E30 and hydrated ethanol to be placed in the same tank since any combination of them always results in a single phase. A little less water is tolerated at low temperatures. For the E10 is about 0.5% v / v, 70 F and decreases to about 0.23% v / v at -30 F.
In many cars countries are required to run on ethanol blends. Brazil requires cars be suitable for a mixture of ethanol 25%, and required various mixtures between 22% and 25% ethanol, since July 2007 25% is required. The United States allows up to 10% blends, and some states require this (or fewer) in all gasoline sold. Other countries have their own requirements. Beginning with model year 1999, an increasing number of vehicles around the world are manufactured with engines that can run on any fuel from 0% ethanol up to 100% ethanol without modification. Many cars and light trucks (a class containing minivans, SUVs and pickup trucks) are designed to be flexible fuel vehicles (also called dual-fuel vehicles). In years older model, the engine of your systems sensors contained in the fuel alcohol and / or oxygen sensors in the exhaust that supply data to the engine control computer to adjust fuel injection to achieve stochiometric (no residual fuel or free oxygen in the exhaust air-fuel ratio) for any fuel mix. In newer models, the sensors have been withdrawn from alcohol, with the computer using only oxygen and feedback sensor airflow estimate the alcohol content. The computer motor control can also adjust (advance) the ignition timing to achieve a higher output without pre-ignition when it provides that a higher percentage of alcohol present in the fuel to be burned. This method is supported by advanced knock sensors – used in most engines high performance gasoline, regardless of whether they are designed to use ethanol or not – What can detect pre-ignition and detonation.
The economy fuel
In theory, all internal combustion vehicles have a fuel economy (measured in miles per gallon in the U.S., or liters per 100 km) that is directly proportional to the content of the fuel into energy. In fact, there are many other variables that influence the situation affecting the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine. Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, so in theory, the burning of ethanol pure in a vehicle will result in a 34% reduction in miles per U.S. gallon, given the same fuel economy as compared with pure gasoline burning. As ethanol has a higher octane, the engine can be more efficient by increasing its compression ratio. In fact, using a variable turbocharger, the compression ratio can be optimized for the fuel to be used, making the fuel economy of almost constant for any mixture. . To E10 (ethanol 10% and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~ 3%) when compared with conventional gasoline, and even lower (1-2%) compared to oxygenates and reformulated. However, for E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and will require more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all E85 models 2006, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles result 25.56% less than unleaded petrol. Mileage EPA-rated current USA flex-fuel vehicles should be considered when making price comparisons, but it should be noted that the E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 104, and must be compared to the premium. In an estimated U.S. retail price for E85 ethanol is $ 2.62 per U.S. gallon or $ 3.71 adjusted by the equivalence of energy compared to a gallon of gasoline costs $ 3.03. sugar cane ethanol from Brazil (100%) costs $ 3.88 against $ 4.91 for E25 (July 2007).
production systems Consumer
Although the systems of production of biodiesel has been sold for home and corporate users for many years, the production of ethanol sold systems designed for use by the consumer have been on the market. In 2008, two different production systems companies announced home-scale ethanol. The Fuel System AFS125 Advanced Research and Development Allard is capable of producing ethanol and biodiesel in an engine, while the E-100 MicroFueler E-Fuel Corporation is dedicated solely to ethanol.
Country Experience
The ethanol producers Fuel in early 2008 were the United States with 9.0 billion U.S. liquid gallons (BG) and Brazil (6.47 BG), responsible for 89% of production World 17,330 million U.S. gallons (65.6 million liters). Strong incentives, along with other industry development initiatives, are giving way the fledgling ethanol industries in countries such as Canada, China, Thailand, Colombia, India, Australia and some countries in Central America. However, ethanol has yet to make a dent in world oil consumption of 4.000 million tons / year (84 million barrels / day) in 2006.
Production Ethanol Annual Total (all levels)
by country (2004-2006)
Top 15 countries
(Million U.S. liquid gallons per year)
Production annual fuel ethanol
by country (2007-2008)
Top 15 countries / blocks
(Million U.S. liquid gallons per year)
World
sort
Country
2006
2005
2004
World
sort
Country / Region
2008
2007
1
United States
4,855
4,264
3,535
1
United States
9,000.0
6,498.6
2
Brazil
4,491
4,227
3,989
2
Brazil
6,472.2
5,019.2
3
China
1,017
1,004
964
3
European Union
733.6
570.3
4
India
502
449
462
4
China
501.9
486.0
5
France
251
240
219
5
Canada
237.7
211.3
6
Germany
202
114
71
6
Thailand
89.8
79.2
7
Russia
171
198
198
7
Colombia
79.3
74.9
8
Canada
153
61
61
8
India
66.0
52.8
9
Spain
122
93
79
9
Central America
n / a
39.6
10
Africa South
102
103
110
10
Australia
26.4
26.4
11
Thailand
93
79
74
11
Turkey
n / a
15.8
12
United Brazil
74
92
106
12
Pakistan
n / a
9.2
13
Ukraine
71
65
66
13
Peru
n / a
7.9
14
Poland
66
58
53
14
Argentina
n / a
5.2
15
Saudi Arabia
52
32
79
15
Paraguay
n / a
4.7
Total World
13,489
12,150
10,770
World Total
17,335.29
13,101.7
Brazil
Main article: Ethanol fuel in Brazil Ethanol fuel and History in Brazil
Brazil has ethanol fuel across the country. Petrobras typical filling station in Sao Paulo with dual fuel service, scored one for alcohol (ethanol) and G for gasoline.
Typical Brazilian "flex" models from several manufacturers, which run on any mixture of ethanol and gasoline, of gasohol E20-E25 to E100 ethanol.
Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was released in Brazil in 2009 and became a bi-fuel motorcycle first sold in the world.
Brazil has the most successful programs of biofuels in the world, involving production of ethanol from sugar cane, and is considered the first biofuels economy sustainable. In 2006, Brazilian ethanol from 18% to fuel the country's road transport sector consumption needs, and in April 2008, over 50% of consumption fuel for the gasoline market. As a result of the increasing use of ethanol, along with deepwater exploration domestic oil sources, Brazil, who years ago had to import a large part of the oil needed for domestic consumption in 2006 reached complete self-sufficiency in oil supply.
Together, Brazil and the United States leads the industrial world in global ethanol production, which together represented 70% of world production and nearly 90% of ethanol used as fuel. In 2006 Brazil produced 16.3 billion liters (4.3 billion U.S. liquid gallons), which represents 33.3% of total world production ethanol and 42% of the world's ethanol used as fuel. cane sugar plantations cover 3.6 million hectares of land for ethanol production, which represents only 1% arable land in Brazil, with an output of 7,500 liters per hectare, compared with U.S. corn ethanol productivity of 3,000 liters per hectare.
The ethanol industry in Brazil is more than 30 years of age and even that is no longer subsidized, production and use of ethanol has been stimulated by:
Low interest loans to build ethanol distilleries
guaranteed purchase of ethanol by the state oil company at a reasonable price
Retail prices pure ethanol is so competitive if not slightly favorable to the ethanol-gasoline blend
The tax incentives provided for in the 1980s to encourage the purchase of pure alcohol vehicles.
Guaranteed purchase and price regulation was closed some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in São Paulo has established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving the cane and sugar production ethanol.
There are lighter vehicles in Brazil, powered by gasoline. Since 1977 the government make it mandatory to blend 20% ethanol (E20) with gasoline (gasohol) requiring only a minor adjustment on regular gasoline engines. Today, the mandatory blend is allowed to vary across the country 20% to 25% ethanol (E25) and is used by all vehicles with gasoline and flexible fuel vehicles. The Brazilian industry of flex-fuel designed vehicles that can run on any proportion gasoline and ethanol. Introduced in 2003, these vehicles became a commercial success. In December 2009, the fleet of "flex" cars and commercial vehicles reached 9.35 million light vehicles, motorcycles and 183,300 flex-fuel. The run on alcohol and "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, are manufactured to tolerate hydrated alcohol (E100), an azeotrope consisting of 95.6% ethanol and 4.4% water.
The latest innovation in flex-fuel technology in Brazil is the development of flex-fuel motorcycles. The first flex bike launched by Honda to the market in March 2009. Powered by its Brazilian subsidiary, Moto Honda in the Amazon, CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for about $ 2,700 U.S.. During the first eight months after its market launch CG 150 Titan Mix sold 139,059 motorcycles, the capture a market share of 10.6% and ranked second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market in October 2009.
United States
U.S. fuel ethanol
production and imports
(2001-2008)
(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)
Year
Production
Imports
Demand
2001
1,770
n / a
n / a
2002
2,130
46
2,085
2003
2,800
61
2,900
2004
3,400
161
3,530
2005
3,904
135
4,049
2006
4,855
653
5,377
2007
6,500
450
6,847
2008
9,000
556
9,637
Note: Demand figures include shares change
and exports small in 2005
Main article: Ethanol fuel in the United States
The United States produces and consumes more ethanol fuel than any other country in the world. The ethanol used as a fuel dates back to Henry Ford, who in 1896 designed his first car, the "Quad" to run on pure ethanol. Then in 1908 he produced the famous Ford Model T capable of running on gasoline, ethanol or a combination of both. Ford continued to defend ethanol as fuel even during Prohibition.
Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on blends ethanol much higher. In 2007, Portland, Oregon, became the first U.S. city to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol. In January 2008, three states of Missouri, Minnesota and Hawaii require ethanol to be mixed with fuel for petrol engines. Many cities also require ethanol blends, due to non-attainment of goals of federal air quality.
E85 FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009, Miami, Florida.
Several manufacturers of motor vehicle including Ford, Chrysler and GM, sales of flex-fuel vehicles that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline all the way up to 85% ethanol (E85). In mid 2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.
In the U.S., there are currently some 1,900 distribution stations ethanol, although most stations are in the area of the corn belt. One of the methods discussed for distribution in the U.S. is using existing pipelines, which raises concerns about corrosion. In any case, some companies have proposed building a pipeline to transport 1,700 miles ethanol from the Midwest through Central Pennsylvania to New York.
The production of fuel ethanol from corn in the United States is controversial for some reasons. Production of ethanol from corn is 5 to 6 times less efficient than producing it from sugarcane. The production of corn ethanol is highly dependent on subsidies and consuming a food crop to produce fuel. Subsidies to fuel blenders and ethanol refineries have been frequently cited as the reason to raise the price of corn, and farmers plant more corn and the conversion of land for considerable corn (maize), which generally consumes more fertilizers and pesticides than many other land uses. This is at odds with the subsidies paid directly to farmers that are designed to take the land from production Corn and pay farmers to plant grass and idle land, often in conjunction with soil conservation programs in an attempt to boost corn prices. Recent developments in cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of those concerns. A theoretically more efficient way production of ethanol has been suggested to use sugar beet to do virtually the same amount of ethanol than corn without using a food crop of corn, especially from beet can grow in less tropical conditions of cane sugar.
Most of the ethanol consumed in the U.S. is in the form of a gasoline blend of low up to 10%. Shown a fuel pump in Maryland selling E10 binding.
In October 2008 the first "biofuels corridor" was officially opened along I-65, a major interstate highway in the central United States. Stretching from northern Indiana to southern Alabama, this corridor with over 200 individual stations supply makes it possible to drive a vehicle flex-fuel "from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico without being more than a quarter worth of fuel tank of an E85 pump.
On April 23, 2009, the California Air Resources Board has adopted specific standards and benchmarks for carbon intensity of the Baja California Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS), which comes into force on January 1, 2011. During the consultation, there was controversy about the inclusion of indirect effects and modeling change in land use. After the decision of the CARB, among other criticisms, representatives of the U.S. ethanol industry have complained that this rule exaggerates the environmental effects corn ethanol, and also criticized the inclusion of indirect effects of changes in land use as an unfair penalty to corn ethanol produced domestically, because deforestation in the developing world is being tied to U.S. production of ethanol. The initial value of reference set for 2011 for the LCFS means that corn ethanol Midwest not meet the standard of California, unless current carbon intensity is reduced.
A similar controversy arose after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), published on May 5, 2009, his knowledge of proposed rulemaking for the new Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). The draft Regulation was released for public consultation during a period of 60 days. EPA's proposed regulations also included the carbon footprint from indirect changes in land use. On the same day, President Barack Obama signed a presidential directive in order to advance the research of biofuels and improve their marketing. The biofuels directive established an Interagency Working Group comprising three agencies, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Energy. This group will be developed a plan to increase the use of flexible fuel vehicles and help in the marketing efforts of retailers. They will also coordinate the policies infrastructure that impact on supply, safe transport and distribution of biofuels. The group will also come up with ideas for policies to increase investment in new generation of fuels like cellulosic ethanol, and reduce the environmental impact of growing footprint of biofuels, particularly corn ethanol.
Europe
Bioethanol production in
European Union (GWh)
No
Country
2005
2006
1
Germany
978
2,554
2
Spain
1,796
2,382
3
France
853
1,482
4
Sweden
907
830
5
Italy
47
759
6
Poland
379
711
7
Hungary
207
201
8
Lithuania
47
107
9
Netherlands
47
89
10
Czech Republic
0
89
11
Latvia
71
71
12
Finland
77
0
27
Total
5,411
9,274
na = Not available
The consumption of bioethanol in
European Union (GWh)
No
Country
2005
2006
2007
1
Germany
1,682
3,544
3,408
2
France
871
1,719
3,174
3
Sweden
1,681
1,894
2,113
4
Spain
1,314
1,332
1,310
5
Poland
329
611
991
6
United Brazil
502
563
907
7
Bulgaria
–
0
769
8
Austria
0
0
254
9
Slovakia
0
4
154
10
Lithuania
10
64
135
11
Hungary
28
136
107
12
Netherlands
0
179
101
13
Denmark
–
42
70
14
Ireland
0
13
54
15
Latvia
5
12
20
16
Luxembourg
0
0
10
17
Slovenia
0
2
9
18
Czech Republic
0
13
2
19
Italy
59
0
0
20
Finland
0
10
nd
27
EU
6,481
10,138
13,563
The consumption of ethanol is greater in Europe, Germany Sweden, France and Spain. Europe produces equivalent to 90% of its consumption (2006). Germany produced about 70% of its consumption, Spain 60% and 50% in Sweden (2006). In Portugal there are 792 stations E85 and E85 France 131 service stations with 550 more under construction.
On Monday, September 17, 2007, the first pump fuel ethanol was opened in Reykjavik, Iceland. This pump is the only of its kind in Iceland. The fuel is imported by Brimborg, a Volvo dealer, as a pilot to see how ethanol fueled cars work in Iceland.
In The Netherlands regular petrol with no bio-additives is slowly being outphased, since the EU legislation was passed that requires the fraction of nonmineral rise to become less than 5.75% of total fuel consumption in 2010. This can be done by replacing the diesel or gasoline from any biological source, or fuel sold in the form of pure biofuel. (2007) There are only a few E85 gas stations, where it is sold, which is a 85% ethanol, the mixture 15% gasoline. Straight from Germany, the neighboring country is reported to have a biofuel much better infrastructure and offers E85 and E50. Biofuel is also taxed as regular fuel. However, the fuel sank abroad can not be taxed and a recent receipt of payment in many cases are sufficient to avoid penalties under customs supervision, if the contents of the tank. (The authorities are aware of the high taxation on fuels and fuel reloading border is a well-known.)
An example of an ethanol-powered buses. This Scania is one OmniCity who was visiting the UK, which does not use fuel widely. The largest fleet of similar buses will enter service in Stockholm in 2008.
Sweden
Top fuel ethanol in Sweden: Article
Sweden is the leading country in Europe regarding the use of ethanol as fuel, but has to import most of the ethanol. All Swedish gas stations required by an Act of Parliament to provide at least one alternative fuel, and every fifth car, in Stockholm, now runs at least partially on alternative fuels, mainly ethanol. The number of ethanol plants in Europe is highest in Sweden, 1,200 stations and a fleet of 116,000 flex-fuel vehicles in July 2008.
Stockholm will introduce a fleet of electric buses made Swedish electrical hybrids in the public transport system on a trial basis in 2008. These buses will use ethanol-fueled engines of internal combustion and electric motors. The engines of diesel vehicles will use ethanol.
In order to achieve greater use of biofuels several government incentives were implemented. Ethanol, like other biofuels, were free of both, the rates of CO2 and energy by 2009, resulting in a price reduction of 30% on fuel pump on E85 fuel. Moreover, the incentives also seeks owners of flex-fuel vehicles include a bonus of $ 1,800 to buyers of FFVs, exemption from the Stockholm congestion charge, up to 20% discount on car insurance, car park, mostly of the largest cities, lower tuition fees year and a tax reduction of 20% for company cars flex. In addition, a portion of the program, the Swedish Government decided that 25% of its purchases of vehicles (excluding police vehicles, fire and ambulance) must be alternative fuel vehicles.; Until the early months of 2008, this package of incentives resulted in Sales of flex-fuel cars represent 25% of new car sales.
bioethanol stations
European Union
Country
Stations
No/106
people
Sweden
1,200
131.26
France
211
3.27
Germany
193
2:35
Switzerland
40
5.27
Ireland
29
6.84
United Brazil
22
12:36
Asia
China
Main article: Bioenergy in China
China is promoting ethanol fuel based on a pilot basis in five cities in its central region and northeast, a move designed to create a new market for their surplus grain and reduce consumption of oil. The cities include Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Nanyang in central China's Henan province, and Harbin and Zhaodong province Heilongjiang, northeast China. Under the program, Henan will promote ethanol-based fuel across the province later this year. Officials say the move is very important to help stabilize grain prices, increased farmer income and reducing petrol-induced air pollution.
Thailand
Thailand already using 10% ethanol (E10) extensively on a large scale in the local market. From 2008 started in Thailand with the sale of E20 and E85 in late 2008 the flex-fuel vehicles were introduced with only two gas stations sell E85.
Thailand is converting some of the stock hold by the government of cassava into ethanol fuel. production of ethanol from cassava are being ramped up based to help manage the agricultural products of two cassava and sugar cane. With its abundant resources biomass, it is believed that the ethanol program is a new way of job creation in rural areas while improving the balance of imports fuel.
Australia
Main article: Ethanol fuel in Australia
Legislation in Australia imposes a 10% limit on the concentration of ethanol fuel blends. Mixtures of 90% unleaded petrol and ethanol 10% are commonly referred to as E10. E10 is available through service stations operating under the BP, Caltex, Shell Brazil and marks as well as a number of smaller independent. Not surprisingly, the E10 is more widely available closer to sources of production in Queensland and New South Wales, where cane is grown. E10 is most commonly mixed with 91 RON "regular unleaded "fuel. There is a requirement that retailers label blends containing fuel ethanol in the chamber.
Due to greater stability pressure of ethanol is used by Shell in its 100-octane fuel. Similarly IFS add 10% ethanol to their fuel 91 octane fuel label it premium and sell it cheaper than regular unleaded. This is converse with the general practice of adding ethanol to fuel of inferior quality to bring its octane until 1991.
Some concern was raised over the use of ethanol blended fuel in gasoline vehicles in 2003, manufacturers have largely said that their vehicles were motor fuels. Since then there were no reports of adverse effects of fuel-powered vehicles to ethanol blends.
Caribbean Basin
Member U.S. fuel ethanol
imports by country
(2002-2007)
(Million liters of U.S. liquid)
Country
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
Brazil
188.8
433.7
31.2
90.3
0
0
Jamaica
75.2
66.8
36.3
36.6
39.3
29.0
El Salvador
73.3
38.5
23.7
5.7
6.9
4.5
Trinidad and Tobago
42.7
24.8
10.0
0
0
0
Costa Rica
39.3
35.9
33.4
25.4
14.7
12.0
All-American countries Central and northern South America and the Caribbean are located in a tropical zone with suitable climate for growing sugar cane. In fact, most of these countries have a long tradition of cultivation of sugarcane, mainly for the production of sugar and alcohol.
As a result of guerrilla movements Central America, in 1983 the United States unilaterally and temporarily approved the Caribbean Basin Initiative, allowing most countries in the region to benefit from several tariffs and commercial benefits. These benefits were made permanent in 1990 and, more recently, these benefits have been replaced by the Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act, passed in 2000, Republicentral America and Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement, which was from 2008. All these agreements have allowed many countries in the region to export ethanol to the U.S. without tariffs. Until 2004, countries that benefited most were Jamaica and Costa Rica, but as the U.S. began to demand more fuel ethanol, the two countries increased their exports and the other two started to export. In 2007, Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad and Tobago and Costa Rica exported together the U.S. with a total of 230.5 million gallons of ethanol, representing 54.1% of U.S. imports of ethanol fuel. Brazil began to export ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 million gallons representing 44.3% of U.S. imports of ethanol in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from Canada and China.
In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, where he and the president of Brazil, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, were designed to promote the production and use of ethanol from sugar cane-based Latin America and the Caribbean. The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels. Technology transfer from Brazilian sugar cane would allow several of America Central, Caribbean and Andean countries to take advantage of their free trade agreements to increase prices or become exporters to the U.S. in the short term. Besides addition, in August 2007, the President of Brazil visited Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology. The alliance ethanol between the U.S. and Brazil generated some negative reactions from Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, and the then Cuban President Fidel Castro, who wrote: "you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn. "Or, worse yet," he continued, "by offering financing for poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change. "Daniel Ortega, Nicaragua's president and one of the preferred recipients of technical assistance in Brazil also expressed criticism of the Bush plan, but he promised support for sugar cane ethanol based on Lula's visit to Nicaragua.
Colombia
Colombia's ethanol program began in 2002, based on a law passed in 2001, causing a 10% blend of ethanol with gasoline, and the plan is to gradually reach a mixture of 25% in twenty years. Sugar cane ethanol production began in 2005 when the law came into force, and as local production was not sufficient to provide for the fleet of ethanol throughout the country, the program was implemented only in cities with over 500,000 inhabitants, like Cali, Pereira, and the capital Bogota. All production of ethanol comes from the department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia's traditional cane sugar region. Cassava is the second source of ethanol, and potatoes and castor oil are also being studied.
In March 2009 the government Colombia enacted a mandate to introduce E85 flexible fuel cars. The executive decree applies to all petrol cars with smaller engines than 2.0 liters, produced, imported and marketed in the country in early 2012, determining that 60% of these vehicles should be flex-fuel engines capable of running on gasoline or E85, or any mixture of both. In 2014, the mandatory quota of 80% and will reach 100% in 2016. All vehicles with engines larger than 2.0 liters should be able to E85 from 2013. The decree also stipulates that by 2011 all gas stations must provide infrastructure to ensure availability of E85 across the country. The introduction of compulsory E85 flex-fuel has been controversial.
Costa Rica
The government, based on the National Biofuels Program, established the mandatory use of all gasoline sold in Costa Rica with a mixture of about 7.5% ethanol, starting in October 2008. The implementation phase follows a two-year process that took place in the provinces Guanacaste and Puntarenas. The government hopes to increase the percentage of ethanol mixed with gasoline to 12% over the next 4-5 years. The Costa Rican government is pursuing this policy to reduce the country's dependence on foreign oil and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases produced. The plan also calls for an increase in ethanol production crops and tax breaks for flex-fuel vehicles and other alternative fuel vehicles. However, the introduction of the mixture of 7% ethanol was postponed in September 2008 until early 2009. This delay was due to a request from the national association of fuel retailers to have more time to adapt their infrastructure supply. additional delays caused another delay, as petrol stations were not ready to handle implementation ethanol fuel, and is now scheduled for November 2009.
Despite the official adjournment, during the months of February and March 2009, ethanol, in different mixtures was sold without notice to consumers, which was cause for complaint. The company has national distribution RECOPE, explained that he had purchased 50,000 barrels of ethanol and stored ready for distribution, so I decided to use as an oxygenate to replace MTBE. However, retail sales of E7 continue uninterrupted in the regions trial of Guanacaste and the Central Pacific for three years now.
El Salvador
As a result of the cooperation agreement between the United States and Brazil, El Salvador was chosen in 2007 to conduct a pilot project to introduce state-of-the-art technology for growing sugar cane for ethanol production in America Central, since it is looking for bilateral technical cooperation to assist countries of Central America to reduce its dependence on foreign oil.
Comparison between Brazil and the U.S.
Evolution of ethanol productivity per hectare of sugarcane planted in Brazil between 1975 and 2004. Source: Goldemberg (2008).
Brazil's sugar industry, based on sugar cane is much more efficient than the U.S. industry based on corn. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol to 22 cents per liter, compared with 30 cents per gallon of ethanol from corn. cane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 inches) of annual rainfall. The cane is one of the most efficient photosynthetic in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. Ethanol is produced by yeast fermentation of sugar extracted from sugar cane.
Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii and Texas. In the main growing region, such as Hawaii, sugarcane can produce 20 kg for each square meter exposed to the sun. The first three plants to produce ethanol cane base to go into operation in Louisiana in mid-2009. sugar mill plants in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to production sugar cane ethanol with Colombian technology in order to make possible a profitable ethanol production. These three plants will produce 100 million gallons ethanol within five years.
U.S. ethanol made from corn, costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Despite this cost differential in production, in contrast with Japan and Sweden, the U.S. does not import much of Brazilian ethanol because of U.S. trade barriers which corresponds to a tariff of 54 cents a gallon tax to offset the 45 percent credit blender gallon federal tax that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin. One advantage U.S. corn-based ethanol offers is the ability to return 3.1 of the raw material back to the market as a substitute for corn used in the form of distillers dried grains.
Comparison of key features between
the ethanol industries in the United States and Brazil
Feature
Brazil
USA
Units / comments
Raw material
Sugar cane
Corn
Major cash crops for the production of ethanol, the U.S. has less than 2% from other cultures.
total production of fuel ethanol (2008)
6,472
9,000
Million U.S. liquid gallons
Arable land
355
270 (1)
Million hectares.
The total area used for cultivation Ethanol (2006)
3.6 (1%)
10 (3.7%)
Million hectares (% total arable)
Productivity per hectare
6,800-8,000
3,800-4,000
Liters of ethanol per hectare. Brazil is 727-870 gallons / acre (2006), the U.S. is 321-424 gallons / acre (2003)
Energy balance (productivity energy input)
8,3-10,2
1.3 to 1.6
Relationship between the energy obtained from ethanol / energy expended in its production
Estimate emission reduction
86-90% (2)
10-30% (2)
% GHG avoided by using ethanol instead of gasoline, using existing crop land (n. ILUC).
carbon intensity of the total life cycle
73.40
105.10 (3)
Grams of CO2 equivalent released per MJ of energy produced, includes changes indirect use of the land.
Estimated time of return for GHG emissions
17 years (4)
93 years (4)
Brazil Cerrado to sugarcane and pasture for the U.S. corn. land use change scenarios by Fargione
fuel vehicle fleet flexible
9.3 million
8.0 million
Autos and light trucks only. Brazil in December 2009 (E100 FFV). U.S. in early 2009 (E85 FFV).
ethanol fueling stations in the country
35 017 (100%)
2113 (1%)
In% of total gas stations in the country. Brazil until December 2007. U.S. in January 2010. (Total 170,000).
Ethanol's share in the petrol market
50% (5)
4%
In% of total consumption by volume. Brazil from April 2008. USA, December 2006.
Cost of production (USD gallon /)
0.83
1.14
2006/2007 for Brazil (22/liter), 2004 to USA (35/liter)
Government subsidy (in USD)
0 (6)
0.45/gallon
U.S. since 01.01.2009 as a tax credit. Brazilian ethanol production is not subsidized (6).
Import tariffs (In USD)
20% (FOB)
0.54/gallon
Brazil ethanol does not matter since 2002. The U.S. does on a regular basis.
Notes: (1) Only contiguous U.S., excluding Alaska. (2) Assuming no change in land use. (3) CARB estimate for the Midwest corn ethanol. carbon intensity of California, gasoline is mixed with 95.86 10% ethanol. (4) Assuming that changes in land use directly. (5) If the diesel-powered vehicles are included and because the energy content of ethanol more low in volume, ethanol accounted for 16.9% of energy consumption in the road sector in 2007. (6) ethanol production in Brazil is no longer subsidized, Gasoline is taxed but encouraging the consumption of ethanol fuel (~ 54% tax). By the end of July 2008, when prices were near their peak later and the exchange rate of the real against the U.S. dollar was near its most recent minimum, the average retail price of gasoline at the pump in Brazil was $ 6.00 per gallon, while the average price was U.S. $ 3.98 per gallon. The latest increase in retail prices of gas in Brazil occurred in late 2005, when the price Oil was $ 60 per barrel.
Environment
Energy balance
Energy balance
Country
Type
Energy balance
United States
Corn ethanol
1.3
Brazil
Sugarcane ethanol
8
Germany
Biodiesel
2.5
United States
The cellulosic ethanol
236
experimental, not in commercial production
depending on the method of production
Main article: Ethanol balance energy fuel
All biomass is at least some of these steps: it needs to be cultivated, collected, dried, fermented and burned. All these steps require resources and infrastructure. The total amount of energy consumed in the process of comparison with the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as energy balance (or "net energy gain). Figures compiled in 2007 by a National Geographic Magazine Point modest results for ethanol corn produced in the U.S.: a unit of fossil fuel energy is needed to create 1.3 units of energy derived from ethanol. The balance energy of fuel ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, 1:8. estimates of energy balance are not easily produced, as well as numerous reports have been generated that are contradictory. For example, a separate survey reports that the production of ethanol from sugarcane, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively returns 9.8 units of energy for every unit spent in relation to corn which only returns about 1.34 units of fuel energy for every unit of energy expended.
Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is emitted during fermentation and combustion. However, this is neutralized by the greater absorption of carbon dioxide of carbon by plants grown to produce biomass. When compared to gasoline, depending on the production method, ethanol releases less greenhouse gases.
Air pollution
Compared with conventional unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a fuel source of particulate-free burning burning with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and aldehydes. Gasoline produces 2.44 kg of CO2 equivalent per liter of ethanol and 1.94 (ie 21% less CO2) [lacks of sources]. The Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygenates to reduce emissions of carbon monoxide in the United States. The additive MTBE is being phased eliminated due to groundwater contamination, hence ethanol becomes attractive alternative additive. Current production methods include pollution Air Fertilizer maker of macronutrients, such as ammonia.
A study by atmospheric scientists at Stanford University found that E85 fuel increase the risk of deaths from air pollution compared with gasoline from 9% in Los Angeles, USA: a large, urban, car-based city that is the worst scenario. Ozone levels are significantly increased, thereby increasing photochemical smog and aggravating health problems like asthma.
Manufacture
In 2002, monitoring the production of ethanol from maize revealed that they released VOCs (volatile organic compounds) at a greater rate than had been previously disclosed. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) subsequently reached agreement with Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill, two of the largest producers of ethanol, to reduce emissions these volatile organic compounds. VOCs are produced when fermented corn mash is dried for sale as a supplement for animal feed. Known devices as thermal oxidizers or catalytic oxidizers can be attached to the plants to burn hazardous gases.
Carbon dioxide
See also: low carbon fuel standard
UK Government to calculate the carbon intensity of bioethanol from corn in the U.S. and burned in the UK.
Graph of UK figures for the carbon intensity of bioethanol and fossil fuels. This chart assumes that all bioethanols are burnt in their country of origin and that the existing crop is used to grow the raw material.
The calculation of exactly how much carbon dioxide is produced in the manufacture of bioethanol is a complex and imprecise, and is highly dependent on the method by which ethanol is produced and the assumptions made in the calculation. The calculation should include:
The rising cost of raw material
The cost of transporting raw materials to the factory
The cost of processing the raw material for bioethanol
This calculation may or may not consider the following effects:
The cost of the change in land use in the area where the fuel feedstock is grown.
The cost of transporting ethanol from the factory to its point of use
The efficiency of bioethanol compared to standard petrol
The amount of carbon dioxide carbon produced in the tail pipe.
The benefits from the production of useful byproducts as feed or electricity.
The graph the right shows the values calculated by the UK government for the purpose of the obligation to renewable fuels.
The January 2006 article Science from UC Berkeley ERG, estimated reduction from corn ethanol in GHG by 13% after reviewing a large number of studies. However, in a fix for This article published shortly after the publication, they reduce the estimated 7.4%. An article in National Geographic Magazine overview (2007) puts the figures at 22% less CO2 emissions in the production and use of corn ethanol relative to gasoline and a reduction of 56% for sugarcane ethanol. Automaker Ford reported an 70% reduction in CO2 emissions with bioethanol compared to petrol for one of its flexible fuel vehicles.
A complication further requires that the production is soil preparation, which produces a single new version of greenhouse gases that may take decades or centuries of reductions production of GHG emissions to match. As an example, the conversion of grazing land to produce corn for ethanol takes about a century economy year to offset the greenhouse gases released from the initial culture.
Change in land use
See also: the indirect impacts of land use change biofuels
large-scale agriculture is needed to produce ethanol from agricultural sources, which requires substantial amounts of cultivated land. University of Minnesota researchers report that if all the corn grown in the U.S. were used to produce ethanol would displace 12% of the current U.S. gasoline. There are allegations that land for ethanol production is acquired through deforestation, while others have observed that areas currently supporting forests are not generally suitable for cultivation. In any case, agriculture can lead to a decrease in soil fertility due to reduction of organic matter, a decrease in the availability and quality of water, an increase in the use of pesticides and fertilizers and the potential displacement of local communities. However, new technology allows farmers and processors increasingly produce the same output using less inputs.
Production of cellulosic ethanol is a new approach that can relieve land use and related concerns. Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from any plant material, potentially doubling the productivity in an effort to minimize conflicts between the needs for food versus fuel needs. Instead of using only the starch by-products from grinding wheat and other crops, the production cellulosic ethanol maximizes the use of all plant materials, including gluten. This approach has a smaller carbon footprint because the amount of energy intensive fertilizers and fungicides are the same for a higher production of usable material. The technology for producing cellulosic ethanol is currently in phase marketing.
Many analysts suggest that, as the strategy of producing ethanol fuel is used, conservation efforts fuel are also needed to make a big impact in reducing the use of petroleum fuels.
Using Ethanol to Electricity
Conversion of biomass into electricity to charge electric vehicles can be a transport option over the "climate" than the use of biomass for ethanol production, according to an analysis published in Science magazine in May. "You make more efficient use of land and more efficient use of plant biomass, making electricity instead of ethanol, "said Elliott Campbell, an environmental scientist at the University of California, Merced, who led the research." It's another reason, rather than rush to liquid biofuels, we must consider other uses of bio-resources. "
For bioenergy to become a general climate solution, however, technological advances are needed, analysts say. Researchers continue to seek further changes in the cost-effectiveness in both cellulosic ethanol and advanced batteries for vehicles.
The health costs of emissions of ethanol
For every thousand gallons of ethanol equivalent fuel produced and burned in the U.S., the combined costs of climate change and health is 469 million dollars for gasoline, 472,952 million U.S. dollars for corn ethanol, biorefinery as the source of heat (natural gas, corn husks, or coal) and technology, but only $ 123,208,000,000 for cellulosic ethanol, depending on the feedstock (biomass prairie, Miscanthus, switchgrass or corn husks).
Efficiency of common crops
How to improve the yield of ethanol or different feedstocks are introduced, ethanol production may become more economically viable in the U.S.. Currently, research on the production of ethanol enhancement of each unit of corn is underway using biotechnology. In addition, while oil prices remain high, the economic use of other raw materials such as cellulose, become viable. Byproducts such as straw or wood chips can be converted into ethanol. fast-growing species like switchgrass can be grown on land unsuitable for other crops and yield high levels of ethanol per unit area.
Culture
Annual yield (Liters / Hectare)
Annual yield (U.S. gal / acre)
Greenhouse gas savings (% of petrol against) (1)
Comments
Miscanthus
7300
780
3773
Low-input perennial grass. Ethanol production depends on the development of cellulosic technology.
Switchgrass
31007600
330810
3773
Low-input perennial grass. Ethanol production depends on the development of cellulosic technology. improvement initiatives underway to increase yields. Increased production of biomass as possible with several species of perennial grasses.
Poplar
37006000
400640
51100
Fast-growing tree. Ethanol production depends on the development of cellulosic technology. Completion of the genome sequencing project will help creative efforts to increase productivity.
Sugarcane
68008000
727870
8796
Long-season annual grasses. Used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in Brazil. processing plants burn residues not later used for ethanol to generate electricity. Only grows in tropical and subtropical regions.
Sweet sorghum
25007000
270750
No data
Low input annual grass. The production of ethanol as possible, using existing technology. It grows in tropical and temperate climates, but it is estimated the largest ethanol production assume multiple crops per year (Only possible in tropical climates). Do not store well.
Corn
31004000
330424
1020
High-input annual grass. Used as raw material for most bioethanol produced in USA. Only kernels can be processed using available technology, development of commercial cellulose technology would be used to forage and … About the Author

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