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Coral Reefs

Training
See also: reef fringing reef Atoll, and the structure and distribution of Coral Reefs
Most coral reefs were formed after the last glacial period, when melting ice raised sea level rise and flooding the continental shelves. This means that most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years. As the communities of coral reefs have been established on the shelves, they built reefs that grew up, keeping pace with the rising sea level. Reefs that has not kept pace can become drowned reefs, covered with water so that there was sufficient light for survival further.
Coral reefs are also found on the seafloor away from the continental shelf, around oceanic islands and atolls like. The majority of these Ocean coral islands are of volcanic origin. The few exceptions are of tectonic origin, where plate movements have raised the bottom of the ocean surface.
In 1842, Charles Darwin published his first monograph, structure and distribution of Coral Reefs. There, he expounded his theory of the formation of reefs atoll, an idea he conceived during the Beagle voyage. His theory was that the atolls were formed by uplift and subsidence of the earth's crust under the oceans. The theory Darwin provides a sequence of three steps in the formation of the atoll. It begins with a fringe reef forming around an extinct volcanic island as the island subsidies and the ocean floor. As the collapse continues, the reef becomes a fringing barrier reefs, and finally an atoll reef.
Darwin's theory begins with an island volcanic which breaks
As the island and the ocean floor, coral growth creates a fringe reef, many times, including a shallow lagoon between the land and main reef
As the collapse continues the fringe reef becomes a greater barrier reef further from the coast, with a pond larger and deeper inside
In the final analysis, the island sinks beneath the sea, and the barrier reef becomes an atoll enclosing a lagoon
A fringe reef may take 10,000 years to form, and can take up an atoll 30 million years
A small atoll in the Maldives.
Darwin predicted that the bottom of each pond would be a foundation stone bed, the remains of the original volcano. Subsequent drilling this proved to be correct. Darwin's theory followed from his understanding of the polyps thrive in clean seas in the tropics where the water is troubled, but can only live within a limited depth of water, starting just below the low tide. If the level of the underlying land remains the same, the corals grow around the coast to form what he called the reefs, and may eventually grow out from the coast to become a barrier reef. Where land is increasing, reefs can grow all along the coast, but raised coral above sea level dies and becomes white limestone. If the disappearance of the earth slowly, the fringe reefs keep pace with growing up on a base dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing a lagoon between the reef and land. A barrier reef can surround an island, and since the island sinks below sea level around of a circular coral atoll growth continues to monitor sea level, forming a central lagoon. barrier reefs and atolls usually do not form complete circles, but in places are broken by storms. If losing ground very quickly or increase in sea level, very fast, the coral dies, it is below its depth habitable.
In general, the two main variables that determine the geomorphology, or form, coral reefs are the nature of the substrate on which they rest, and history of sea level change in relation to this substrate.
As an example of how coral reefs formed on the continental shelf, the current structure of Reef Life of the Great Barrier Reef began to grow about 20,000 years ago. The sea level then was 120 meters (390 feet) below what it is today. As the sea level rose, water and the coral that had invaded the hills of the coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level was 60 meters (200 feet) below at present, and the hills of the coastal plain were then the continental islands. How high sea level continued most of continental islands were submerged. Corals may grow too fast, then the hills, forming small islands and reefs present. Sea levels on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in last 6,000 years, and age structure of this reef life is estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, the same principles apply as described by Darwin's theory above. The Great Barrier Reef development stopped at the stage of reef barrier, since Australia is not about to submerge. He formed the world's largest barrier reef, 3001000 meters (330-1100 feet) of coastline and 2,000 km (1,200 miles) long.
Healthy coral reefs grow horizontally 1-3 cm (0.39 to 1.2 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.412 in) per years, however, they are bound to grow up from a depth of 150 meters (490 feet) due to its need for sunlight, and can not grow above the March
Types
The three major reef types are:
A fringe reef reef that is directly connected to a shore or borders, with a channel intervention or shallow pond.
A coral barrier reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep lagoon.
Atoll reef barrier reef more or less circular or continuous stretching all the way around a lagoon without a central console.
Other reef types or variants are:
Patch reef isolated outcrop of reefs relatively small, usually within a lagoon or inlet, often circular and surrounded by sand or seaweed. Patch reefs are common.
An apron reef reef short resembling a fringe reef, but more inclined and extending downward from a point or peninsular shore.
Bank reef linear or semi-circular in outline form, larger than a patch reef.
Tape a long reef, reef, narrow, slightly sinuous, usually associated with an atoll lagoon.
Table reef an isolated reef, approaching an atoll type, but without a lagoon.
Inhabited island in the Maldives
Microatolls certain species of corals form communities called microatolls. The vertical growth of microatolls is limited by average tidal height. By analyzing the different morphologies of growth, microatolls can be used as a low-resolution record of patterns of change the sea level. microatolls fossilized also can be dated with carbon radioactive dating. These methods have been used to reconstruct Holocene sea levels.
Cays small, low-lying sand islands formed on the surface of a coral reef. Material eroded from the hills to the reef in parts of the reef or lagoon, forming an area above sea level. Plants can stabilize cays enough to be habitable by humans. Cays occur in tropical environments around the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian (Including the Caribbean and Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide for agricultural land area and hundreds of thousands of people. Its reef surrounding ecosystems also provide food and building materials for the islanders.
When a coral reef can not keep up with the sinking of a volcanic island, a seamount or guyot is formed. Seamounts and guyots are below the ocean surface and can be home to many species, depending on your location and depth. Seamounts are rounded on top and guyots are flat. The top flat of the Guyot, also called tablemount, is due to erosion caused by waves, winds and atmospheric processes.
Distribution
Locations of coral reefs.
Limit of 20 isotherms C. Most corals live within this limit. Note the cooler waters caused by upwelling on the southwest coast of Africa and the coast of Peru.
This map shows the outcrop areas in red. The Coral reefs are not found in coastal areas where cooler nutrient-rich upwellings occurring
Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 square kilometers (109,800 sq mi), which is slightly less than one percent of the area occupied by the world's oceans. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) are responsible for 91.9% of the total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of this value, while Pacific, including Australia, to 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs only account for 7.6%.
Although corals are both in temperate waters and tropical reefs in shallow waters only way to a zone extending from 30 N to 30 S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths greater than 50 meters (160 feet). The optimum temperature for most of the coral reef is 2627 C and there are few reefs in the waters below 18 C. However reefs in the Gulf have adapted temperatures of 13 º C in winter and 38 º C in summer.
deep-water corals is even more exceptional, since it can exist at greater depths and temperatures cooler. Although deep water corals can form reefs, very little is known about them.
Coral reefs are rare along the West Coast as well as along the west coast of Africa. This is mainly due to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (respectively, Peru, Benguela Canary and streams). The corals are rarely found in coastal southern Asia from the eastern tip of India (Madras) to the border with Bangladesh and Myanmar. They also are rare along the north-eastern coast of South America and Bangladesh due to the release of freshwater from the Amazon and Ganges respectively.
Top reefs and reefs of the world
The Great Barrier Reef – the largest coral reef system in the world, Queensland, Australia.
The Belize Barrier Reef – the second world's largest, stretching from southern Quintana Roo, Mexico along the coast from Belize to the Bay Islands of Honduras.
New Caledonia Barrier Reef – the second largest double barrier reef in the world with a length of 1,500 km (930 miles).
The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef – the world's third largest, following the coast east of Andros Island, Bahamas between Andros and Nassau.
Red Sea Coral Reef – located off the coast of Israel, Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
Pulley Ridge – deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida.
numerous reefs around the Maldives.
Raja Ampat Islands ghe in the Indonesian province of West Papua to offer more diverse known marine.
Biology
Anatomy of a coral polyp.
See also: Coral
Live coral should be thought of as small live animals included in calcium carbonate. It's a mistake to think of coral, plants or rocks. Coral is composed of accumulations of individual animals called polyps, arranged in different ways. Polyps are usually small but can vary in size from a pinhead to a foot in diameter. Reefs grow as polyps, along with other bodies of calcium carbonate deposit on the basis of the choir, as skeletal structure under and around him, pushing the "head" of coral, or up and out polyps. Waves, grazing fish (such as parrots), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms break down the coral skeletons into fragments that fit into spaces in the reef structure. Many other organisms living on the reef community contribute skeleton of calcium carbonate in the same way. Coralline algae are important contributors to the reef structure in parts of the reef with the highest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open sea). These deposits of limestone in sheets of seaweed on the reef surface, reinforcing it.
construction of hermatypic coral reefs, are only found in the photic zone (above 50 m depth), the depth to which sunlight penetrates the water sufficient for photosynthesis occurs. Coral polyps not photosynthesis, but they have a symbiotic relationship with unicellular organisms called zooxanthellae; these cells in the tissues of coral polyps carry out photosynthesis and produce excess organic nutrients that are then used by coral polyps. Because of this relationship, the reefs coral grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. In fact, the relationship is responsible for coral reefs in the sense that without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals to form impressive reef structures. Corals reach 90% of their nutrients from their zooxanthellae symbionts.
Table coral
Close up of polyps arranged in a choir, waving its tentacles. There can be thousands of polyps in a single branch of coral.
Corals can reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp can use both modes of reproduction of life. Corals reproduce sexually by a fertilization internal or external. Reproductive cells are found in the mesentery membranes that radiate into the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some corals mature adult hermaphrodites, but others are exclusively male or female. Some even change sex as they grow.
Internally, the fertilized eggs develop in polyps for a period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during spawning synchronized. release eggs and sperm into the water polyps at the same time. Eggs scattered over a large area. Spawning depends on four factors: time of year, water temperature and lunar and tidal cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is little variation between high and low tides. The movement less water, the greater the chance of fertilization. perfect moment occurs in the spring. Release of planula larvae or eggs usually occurs at night and is sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (36 days after the full moon). The launch period for the settlement only lasts a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks (7, 14). They are vulnerable to predation and heavy adverse environmental conditions. For the lucky few who survive to attach to the substrate, the challenge comes from competition for food and space.
There are about a thousand species of corals that build different forms, such as wrinkled brain, cabbage, tops table, deer antlers, wires and pylons.
Brain coral
Staghorn coral
Spiral wire coral
Pillar coral
Darwin's Paradox
Darwin's Paradox
Coral … seem to proliferate the ocean waters, when they are hot, poor, light and restless, a fact that Darwin had noticed when he passed Tahiti in 1842.
This poses a fundamental paradox, shown quantitatively by the seeming impossibility of balancing the input and output of nutrients that control the metabolism of polyp the choir.
Recent oceanographic research has brought to light the reality of this paradox, confirming that the oligotrophic ocean euphotic zone persists until the crest of the reef swell battered. When you approach the edges of the reef and atolls of the desert, near the open sea, the near absence of living matter, suddenly becomes an abundance Life without a transition. So, why is there something rather than nothing, and more precisely, where the nutrients needed for the operation of this extraordinary machine coral reef come from? Francis Rougerie
During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin described tropical coral reefs as an oasis in the desert of the ocean. He reflected on the paradox that tropical coral reefs, which are among the richest and most diverse ecosystems on earth, flourish when they are surrounded and supported by the tropical waters of the ocean that provide almost all nutrients. It's been a challenge for scientists to explain this paradox.
Coral reefs cover less than one percent of the world's ocean surface, but they support more than one quarter of all marine species. This huge number of results complex species in food webs with large predator fish eat smaller fish forage zooplankton that eat even less and so on. However, all food chains eventually depend on the plants, which are the primary producers. E primary productivity of a coral reef is very high, resulting in a typical biomass production of C 5-10g m2 day1.
tropical waters are often described as crystalline. This is because they are deficient in nutrients and plankton to drift. The sun shines all year round in the tropics, the warming of the surface layer the ocean so it is less dense than the subsoil. The water heater is separated from the water cooler for a stable thermocline, where temperature is a change Fast. This keeps the waters warm surface floating above the deeper waters of the refrigerator. There is little interchange between these layers. Bodies die in aquatic environments usually sink to the bottom where they decompose. This decomposition releases nutrients as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These nutrients, N, P and K, are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics are not directly recycled back to the surface.
Plants are the base the food chain, and need sunlight and nutrients if they are growing. In the oceans, these plants are mainly a type of plankton, microscopic phytoplankton, that drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which feeds the sequestration, so that they are only found on the surface waters. But they also need the nutrients. Phytoplankton quickly use all the nutrients in surface waters, and these nutrients in the tropics usually do not be replaced because the thermocline.
Coral polyps
The situation with coral reefs is different. The lakes formed over the growth of coral reefs fill with material eroded from the reef and the island. They become havens for marine life, provide protection from waves and storms.
More important Moreover, the nutrients are recycled, and not as they are lost in the open ocean. On coral reefs and lagoons, producers include phytoplankton algae and worms marine algae and coral, especially small types called turf algae, which are nutrients for the corals. Phytoplankton are eaten by fish and crustaceans, nutrients that also passes along the food chain. Recycling ensures that fewer nutrients are needed overall community support.
The corals are home to numerous symbiotic organisms. In particular, there is an extraordinary symbiosis between corals and microscopic algae, the single cell dinoflagellate known as zooxanthellae. The endosymbiosis with zooxanthellae does a coral polyp, ie, it lives inside the polyp tissue. There it absorbs solar energy with special pigments, using photosynthesis to supply the polyps with organic nutrients in the form of glucose, glycerol, and amino acids. Zooxanthellae can provide up to 90% of energy demand coral. In contrast, as an example of mutualism, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with an average of one million for each cubic centimeter of coral, with a relatively safe place to live and a constant source of carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis.
Corals are nocturnal feeders. Here in the dark, coral polyps are extended its tentacles to feed on zooplankton
The color depends on the type of corals that host zooxanthellae
Corals also absorb nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorus from the water. Many corals extend their tentacles to capture zooplankton at night to brush them when the water is stirred. Zooplankton provides the polyp with nitrogen, and shares some of the polyps with zooxanthellae nitrogen, which also require this element. The pigments in different species of coral zooxanthellae give their different colors. Coral loses its zooxanthellae turns white and is said to be bleached, a condition that is not corrected can lead to death of corals.
A 2001 article reported that sponges are another key to explain the paradox of Darwin. These sponges live in crevices in coral reefs. They are efficient filter feeders, and at Sea Red, which consume about sixty percent of the phytoplankton that drift by. The sponge absorbs the nutrients from the phytoplankton are then excreted in the form of coral can use.
Researchers in 2002 explained why coral thrives best in troubled waters. They found the surface roughness of coral is the key. Typically, There is a boundary layer of stagnant water around a submerged object, which acts as a barrier. But when the waves break on the extreme edges of coral boundary layer is disrupted, allowing access to coral few nutrients that are there. The researchers say that the turbulent water promotes rapid growth of the reef and lots of branching. Although coral ecosysemss are big on recycling, waste of a species to become the food of another, the researchers also say that without the nutritional gains achieved by rough surfaces coral, recycling, even better would be to leave the corals want nutrients.
In 2004, another symbiotic organism, a bacterium called cyanobacteria, was found to provide soluble nitrates for the reef, through nitrogen fixation.
Coral reefs are also dependent often from other habitats, such as seagrass meadows and mangrove forests in the surrounding area for the supply of nutrients. Seagrass and mangroves provide plants and dead animals are rich in nitrogen and also serve to feed the reef fish and supply of wood and vegetation. Reefs in turn, protect mangroves and seagrass wave and produce sediment to mangroves and seagrass to the root within
Zones
ecosystems of coral reefs contain a number of different areas that represent different types of habitats for fish and invertebrates. Typically, three main zones are recognized: the reef front (the outer reef and deeper) reef crest (Zone narrower and shallower than the ocean waves break), and the reefs back (behind the reef crest and nearer the coast, with calm waters and protected), which is also often referred to as the reef lagoon.
The three areas are interconnected physically and environmentally, to some extent with the life of reef and ocean processes creating opportunities for exchange of ocean water, sediment, nutrients and marine life from one to another.
They should therefore be properly considered as integrated components of the ecosystem of coral reef, each with roles in support of fish assemblages featuring abundant and diverse coral reefs.
Most of the existing coral reefs in shallow waters, less than fifty meters deep. Some are found in tropical areas where the continental shelf cool, nutrient rich upwelling does not occur, such as Great Barrier Reef. Others are found on the seabed or from neighboring islands such as atolls, such as the Maldives. The reefs neighboring islands islands are formed when they disappear into the ocean, and atolls are formed when an island disappears below the sea surface.
Moyle and Cech distinguish six major areas, although most of the reefs are just some of the areas.
Water in the area of the reef surface is often rough. This diagram represents a reef on a platform mainland. The waves left water on the course on the ground outside the reef, until they meet with the slope of the coral reef or the foreground. Then the waves pass over the shallow reef crest. When a wave enters shallow water shoals that, that is, it decreases and increases the height of the waves.
The surface of the reef is shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to the constant increase of the waves and the rise and fall of tides. When shallow water wave passing areas, shoal, as shown in Figure right. This means that water in the area of the reef surface is often rough. These are the precise conditions under which coral flower. Superficiality means there is plenty of light for photosynthesis and rough water promotes the ability of corals to feed on plankton. However other organisms such as fish and invertebrates should be able to withstand the rugged conditions to flourish in this area.
The ground is off the reef the sea floor around a reef. This area is applicable to the reefs on the continental shelf. Tropical reefs around the islands and atolls fall abruptly to great depths, and have a floor outside the reef. Normally sandy ground outside the reef, often supports seagrass meadows are important feeding areas for reef fish.
The reef drop-off is for its first 50 meters, the habitat for many reef fish that find shelter on the cliff face and plankton in the water nearby. The drop-off zone applies primarily reefs around oceanic islands and atolls.
The reef face is the area above the floor or reef on the reef drop-off. "Generally, it is the richest habitat for fish and invertebrates. Its complex growth of coralline algae and corals provide numerous cracks and crevices for protection, and invertebrates and algae provide abundant epiphytes an ample food source. "
The plateau flat sandy bottom may be behind the main reef, containing pieces of coral. "The plateau may be an area protection on the banks of a pond, or can be a flat area between the reef and rocky shore. In the first case, the number of fish species living in the area, is often the highest in the area of the reef. "
The lagoon reef "many coral reefs completely enclose an area, thus creating a pond of quiet water that usually contains small reef corrected. "
However, the topography "of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each reef is composed of irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and a bare rock sand. The abundance of size, shape and relationships of these patches changes year to year in response to various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Cultivation of corals, for example, produces the fine structure constant change of the reefs. In a larger scale, tropical storms can bring down large sections of rock reef areas and cause sand to move. "(Connell 1978)
Biodiversity
Tube sponges attracting cardinal fish, wrasses and glassfish
Reefs are also home to a variety of other organisms, including fish, seabirds, sponges, cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, headless shrimp, lobsters and crabs), mollusks (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea snakes. Besides humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with cetaceans such as dolphins that visit to be the main exception. Some of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef and participate in complex food webs.
Researchers have found evidence of dominance of algae in areas of healthy coral reefs. In surveys done around largely uninhabited U.S. Pacific islands, algae inhabit a large proportion of respondents local choir. The population algal turf algae, coralline algae and seaweed.
Fish
Main article: Coral reef fish
Coral reefs are home to a variety of fish and tropical reefs that can be distinguished. These include:
adjust the coral fish (like fish and Labridae) These types of fish feed, or by small animals that live close to the corals, algae, or in the choir. Fish that feed on small animals including cleaning fish (these fish feed in the clutches of larger predatory fish) Fish and bullet Balistidae (these urchins eat), while fish that eat algae include Pomacentridae (damselfishes). Serranidae cultivate algae removing creatures feeding it (Such as sea urchins), and remove edible seaweed. The fish that eat coral include parrot and butterfly.
fish that swim near the reef. These include predatory fish like pompano, grouper, mackerel, certain types of shark, Epinephelus marginatus, barracuda, grouper, …) They also include herbivores and feed on plankton e. Fish eating seagrass include mackerel, sea bream, Pagellus, Conodon … Fish eating plankton include Caesio rays, chromis, Holocentridae, kauderni pterapogon, …
Organisms can cover every square inch of a coral reef,
Generally, fish swimming in coral reefs are as colorful as its reef. Examples are the pretty parrot, angelfish, damselfish, Pomacanthus paru, Clinidae and butterfly. At night, some change for a more vivid color. Besides colorful fish combining their environment, other fish (fish, for example, predators and herbivores such as Lampanyctodes Hector, Holocentridae, kauderni Pterapogon …) and aquatic animals (Comatulida, Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, …) emerge and become active while others rest.
Other fish groups found on coral include coral groupers, wrasse and grunt. More than 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. It has been suggested that the species of fish that inhabit coral reefs are able to coexist in such large numbers because any free-living planktonic larvae is inhabited by fish that first meet him in what has been termed "A lottery for living space."
Seabirds
Coral reef systems provide important habitat for species of seabirds, some threatened extinction. For example, Midway Atoll supports nearly three million seabirds, including two thirds (1.5 million) of the overall population of albatrosses, and a third of the world population of black-footed albatross. Each species of seabird have specific sites where they nest on the atoll. In all, 17 species of seabirds live in the middle. The short-tailed albatross is the most rare, with fewer than 2,200 survivors after excessive game birds in the late nineteenth century.
Invertebrates
Invertebrates have a role in the food chain of the reef. For example, sea urchins, sea slugs Dotidae and eat algae. Some species of sea urchins, Diadema antillarum and can play a key role in preventing excess algal reefs. The hawksbill turtles Nudibranchia anemones and sea sponges eat.
A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, or boring for the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve mollusks, and sipunculans. Those include the many other reef species especially crustaceans and polychaete worms.
Other
Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Many birds forage in tropical reef fish, such as herons, geese, pelicans and boobies. Some terrestrial reptiles may be associated with reefs intermittently, such as monitor lizards, crocodiles and sea snakes the semi-aquatic as Laticauda colubrina.
Soft coral, coral, glass, sponges and sea squirts
Crown-edge coral fungus
Eastern coral snake
Banded coral shrimp
Caribbean reef squid
giant clam
Green turtle
Shoaling reef fish
The economic value
Coral reefs provide services ecosystem for tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection. The global economic value of coral reefs was estimated at U.S. $ 30 billion. Coral reefs protect the coast by absorbing wave energy, and many smaller islands would not exist without its reefs to protect them. According to WWF, the economic cost over a period of 25 years of destruction a mile of coral reefs is somewhere between $ 137,000 and $ 1,200,000. About 6 million tons of fish are taken every years of coral reefs. Well-managed coral reefs have an annual yield of 15 tons of seafood, on average, per square kilometer. fishing reefs in Southeast Asia reef alone yield about $ 2.4 billion seafood.
Issues
Reef-fringed island Yap in Micronesia. Coral reefs are dying around the world.
Coral reefs are dying around the world. Human activity may represent the greatest threat to coral reefs. In mining, coral particular, pollution (organic and nonorganic), overfishing and fishing with explosives, digging canals and access to the islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems. Coral reefs also face high risks of pollution, disease, destructive fishing practices and warming oceans. "The order to find answers to these problems, researchers are studying the various factors that impact the reefs. The list of factors is long, including the role of the ocean as a sink carbon dioxide, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, biological virus, impacts of dust storms causing agents to remote reefs, pollution, algal blooms and others. The reefs are threatened beyond the coastal areas.
The coral reefs of Southeast Asia are at risk of harmful fishing practices (such as cyanide and blast fishing), overfishing, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. A variety of activities, including regulation of education and the establishment of marine protected areas are under way to protect the reefs.
Indonesia is home to one third of the coral world total and a quarter of fish species, about 33,000 square miles (85,000 km2). Indonesia's coral reefs are located in the heart of the Coral Triangle and have suffered from destructive fishing, unregulated tourism, and bleaching due to climate change. Data from 414 reef monitoring stations in 2000 found that only 6% are in excellent condition, while 24% are in good condition, and approximately 70% are poor in good condition (2003 The Johns Hopkins University).
In 2007, Reef Check, the world's largest organization of reef conservation, said only 5% of the Philippines 27,000 sq km of coral reefs are in "excellent condition" Tubbataha Reef Marine Park in Palawan, Apo Island Reef in Negros, Oriental Apo in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island Passage off Batangas. Coral reefs of the Philippines is the second largest in Asia.
General estimates show coral reefs of the world, approximately 10% are already dead. It is estimated that about 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to destruction activities human related. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where 80% of reefs are threatened.
fishing practices
See also: Overfishing and environmental effects of fishing
Many species live around fishing valuable coral reefs. Shark and reef fish are caught intensively for the fish markets. Seahorses and sea cucumbers are harvested for Chinese pharmacopoeia. Lobster are sought for the tourist industry, and shrimp for export trade.
Overfishing, particularly selective overfishing, can unbalance the ecosystems of coral reefs by encouraging the use of excessive growth predators of corals. The predators that eat live coral, such as the crown of starfish corallivores porcupines are called. Coral reefs are built from coral Stone, who developed large amounts of cetyl palmitate wax in their tissues. Most predators find it indigestible wax. The crown of thorns star is a star of great dimensions (up to one meter) long protected with venomous spines. It has an enzyme system that dissolves the wax in hard corals, and allows the starfish to feed of live coral. Typically, the starfish are kept under control by giant triton snail March However, Triton giant is valued for its bark, and has been severely overfishing. As a result, the crown of thorns star populations can explode without checking periodically devastate coral reefs.
The giant triton overfishing eats the crown of thorns starfish
The crown of thorns starfish eats coral
Although some species of aquarium fish can reproduce in aquariums (like Pomacentridae) the majority (95%) are collected from coral reefs. intense harvesting, especially in Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and the Philippines), damage to reefs. This situation is aggravated by destructive fishing practices such as cyanide and blast fishing. Most aquarium fish (8.090%) of the Philippines are captured with sodium cyanide. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released in shelters for fish. It's dope fish that are easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die within months of liver damage. Moreover, species non-tradable die on the field. A major catalyst of cyanide fishing is poverty in fishing communities. In areas like the Philippines where cyanide is used regularly, the percentage of the population below the poverty line is 40%. In such countries, a fisherman can resort to such practices in order to protect his family from starvation.
Fishing with Dynamite is the most destructive method of collecting fish. Sticks of dynamite, grenades and homemade explosives are simply thrown into the water. This method of fishing, kills fish in the area of the main explosion, along with many non-edible and / or unwanted animals of the reef. The blast also kills the corals in the region, eliminating the structure of the reef, destroying habitat for fish and other animals important for maintaining a healthy aquarium. Other destructive fishing methods, as muroami and kayaking, killing all fish in some areas, causing a wreck on the reef ecosystem.
Hughes, et al. (2003), wrote that "with increased human population and improved storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, markets fish and other natural resources have become global, supplying demand for reef resources. "
Pollution
Main article: Marine pollution
This image of an algae bloom off the south coast of England, though not in an area of coral, which shows a flower may be similar to a satellite system remote sensing
The flood caused by agriculture and construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels and ports can carry loads of soil carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This water rich in nutrients can cause algae and phytoplankton to thrive fleshy in coastal areas, known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions, using all the available oxygen. Some algae are toxic, and both plants lower light levels and oxygen, killing marine organisms such as fish and corals. The addition of nutrients as many nitrates and phosphates, a process known as eutrophication, is very damaging to the reefs. High nitrate levels are toxic to corals, while the phosphates slow down the growth of the coral skeleton.
Reefs in close proximity to human populations may be faced with local stresses, including poor water quality from land based sources of pollution. Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps. Poor water quality has also been shown to encourage the spread of infectious diseases among corals.
Barbados graphic dust
In addition to overland flow, and additional sand is blown from other regions. Saharan dust moving around the periphery of the subtropical high moves south in the Caribbean and Florida during the hot season as the ridge builds and moves north through subtropical Atlantic. The dust can also be attributed to a transport system of the Gobi and Taklimakan deserts in Korea, Japan and North Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is great variability in dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year, however, the flow is greater during the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The USGS links events of dust to a decline in the health of coral reefs in the Caribbean and Florida, especially since the 1970s. Studies have shown that corals can incorporate the dust in their skeletons identified as dust from the eruption 1883 of Krakatoa in Indonesia, the annular bands of reef-building coral Montastraea annularis reef tract of Florida.
Climate change
See also: Coral bleaching
Unbleached and bleached coral
Any rise in sea level due to climate change would effectively make coral grow soon to follow. Moreover, changes in water temperature can be very disruptive to the coral. This was seen in 1998 and 2004, El Nio weather phenomenon, where the sea surface temperatures rose well above normal, bleaching or kill many coral reefs. High sea surface temperature (SST), along with high irradiance (Light intensity), triggers the loss of zooxanthellae, a symbiotic algae, dinoflagellates and their pigmentation in corals causing coral bleaching. Zooxanthellae offers 90% of the energy for the coral host. Reefs can often recover from bleaching if they are healthy to begin with and water temperatures cool. However, the Recovery may not be possible if CO2 levels reach 500 ppm, because there may not be enough carbonate ions. See Hoegh-Guldberg 1999 for more information.
The heating can also be the basis of a new emerging problem: the increase of coral diseases. Warming, thought to be the main cause of coral bleaching weakens corals. In his weakened state, the choir is much more prone to diseases, including black band disease, white band and band bone erosion. If global temperatures rise 2 degrees Celsius, coral may not be able to quickly adapt physiologically or genetically. It is estimated that in order to combat the threat of ocean acidification through global warming, a reduction of up to 40% of current emissions is necessary, and up to 95% in 2050. This requires greater emissions reductions than the reductions proposed for those dates by the EU.
Ocean acidification
Main article: Ocean acidification
Bamboo coral is a harbinger of ocean acification
Another problem related to climate change is the acidification oceans. Ocean acidification results from increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which increases the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans. Dioxide carbon dissolved gas reacts with water to form carbonic acid and thus acidifies the ocean. This decrease in pH of the ocean surface is another concern Long-term survival of coral reefs.
sea surface pH is estimated that decreased from about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era, and it is estimated that it will fall by more 0.30.4 units in 2100 as the ocean absorbs more anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Normally, the conditions for production of calcium carbonate are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion concentration is in supersaturating. However, as ocean pH falls, so does the concentration this ion, and when carbonate becomes under-saturated, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Research has found that corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO2.
Bamboo coral is a deep coral, which produces rings growing like a tree. The growth rings image as the rates of growth, change and change in the depth condition over time, and also can record changes due to ocean acidification. This coral is particularly lengthy. Coral specimens as old as 4,000 years have scientists to "4000 years worth of information about what is happening inside the deep ocean."
Other issues
Eroded coral
Within the past 20 years, once prolific seagrassbeds and mangrove forests, which absorb large amounts of nutrients and sediments, were destroyed. Both the loss of areas wetlands, and mangrove habitats seagrassbeds affect the water quality of coastal reefs.
Coral mining is another threat. Both the small-scale harvesting by residents and industrial-scale mining companies by serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce building material that is valued as much as 50% cheaper than other rocks, such as quarries. The rocks are crushed and mixed with other materials such as cement to make concrete. Ancient coral used for construction is known as coral rag. Building directly on the reef also has its price, changing water circulation and tides that bring nutrients to the reef. The pressing reason for building the reef is simply lack of space.
Boats and ships require access points in bays and islands to load and unload cargo and people. To this end, the pieces of coral are often cut away to clear a path. Although this may seem a minor destruction reef, negative consequences may include changes to water circulation and tidal changes in the pattern, which result in a turnaround the supply of nutrients reef, sometimes destroying much of the reef. Fishing vessels and other large vessels occasionally ran aground on a reef. Two types of damage may result. collision damage occurs when a coral is crushed and broken by a ship's hull into multiple fragments. Scarring occurs when the propeller of the Boat, cut the live coral and expose the skeleton. The physical damage can be seen as streaks on the reefs. Mooring also causes damage that can be reduced using mooring buoys.
Endangered species
The global standard for recording threatened marine species is the Red List of Threatened Species. This list is the foundation for marine conservation priorities worldwide. The species is listed under the category of risk if it is considered critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable. Other categories are near threatened and data deficient. By 2008, the IUCN had assessed all the coral reef builders known species as follows
Group
Species
Threatened
Near Threatened
Data deficient
The reef-building
845
27%
20%
17%
The Coral Triangle region (Indo-Malay Archipelago, Philippines) has the highest number of reef-building coral species threatened category, and the greatest diversity of coral species. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as on people who depend on reef resources for their livelihood.
Protected areas
Main article: Coral reef protection
Coral reefs and fish in Papua New Guinea
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have become increasingly important for the management of the reef. APM in Southeast Asia and elsewhere around the world trying to promote responsible fisheries management and habitat protection. As well as national parks and wildlife refuges, marine protected areas prevent potentially damaging extraction activities. The objectives of the APM are social and biological, including restoration of coral reefs, aesthetics, increased biodiversity and protected, and economic benefits. Conflicts over APM involve lack of participation, conflicting opinions and perceptions of effectiveness and funding.
Biosphere reserves are protected areas that others can protect the reefs. In addition, marine parks, heritage and the world can protect the reefs. World Heritage designation may also play a vital role. For example, the Chagos Archipelago, Sian Ka'an, the Great Barrier Coral Island Henderson, the Galapagos Islands, Belize Barrier Reef and Palau have been designated as protected by designation as a World Heritage Site.
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including an Action Plan for Biodiversity.
Ahu inhabitants of the island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice that restrict fishing in six areas of your pond reef. Their cultural traditions allow fishing, but fishing is not net and spear. The result is that both fish biomass and individual sizes these areas are significantly higher than in places where fishing is unrestricted.
Restoration Technologies
Main article: Coral Restoration reef
Low voltage electrical currents applied through the seawater dissolved minerals crystallize in steel structures. The resulting white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at fast rates in these structures coated. Electric currents also accelerate the formation and growth of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms. The proximity of the anode and cathode gives an environment of high pH, which inhibits the growth of filamentous algae and fleshy, which compete with corals for space. Growth rates increased ceases when the mining stops the process of accretion.
During mineral deposition, corals solved display a higher growth rate and size and density, but once the process is complete, growth rate and density of return to levels that are comparable to naturally growing corallites, and are approximately the same size or slightly smaller.
In large restoration projects, depending on the type of placement, propagated coral substrate to hermatype coral is often made with metal pins, or milliput superglue. Needle and thread can also attach a hermatype-coral substrate. Concrete has also been used to restore large sections of coral reefs broken. Finally, special structures such as reef balls can be placed to provide a base for corals to grow.
Organizations
Organizations that currently undertake coral reef / atoll restoration projects using simple methods of plant propagation:
Coral Isle
Counterpart
U.S. Task Force Coral Reef (CRTF)
National Institute of Coral Reefs (NCRI)
Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Conservation Program Coral Reef
National Center for Coral Reef Research (nCore)
Reef Ball
Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI)
Foundation of South Pacific peoples
WorldFishCenter: promotes sustainable mariculture techniques to grow as reef organisms tridacnidae
Coral Restoration Foundation (CRF): Adopt a Coral
Organizations that promote interest, provide knowledge bases on the survival of reefs coral, and promote activities to protect and restore coral reefs:
Australian Coral Reef Society
Biosphere Foundation
Chagos Conservation
Conservation Society of Pohnpei
Coral Reef Care
Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)
Coral Reef Targeted Research and Capacity Building for Management
Coral Triangle Initiative
Cousteau Society
Crusoe Reef Society
CEDAM International
Earthwatch
Environmental Defense Fund
Environmental Solutions International
Friends of the Saba Marine Park
Global Coral Reef Alliance (GCRa)
Network Monitoring Global Coral Reef
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
ICRAN Mesoamerican Reef Alliance
International Marinelife Alliance
International Society for Reef Studies
Intercoast Network
Kosrae Conservation Organization for Security and
Marine Conservation Group
Marine Conservation Society
Mesoamerican Reef Tourism Initiative (Marti)
NSF Moorea Coral Reef Long-term Ecological Research site
Nature Conservancy
Ocean Voice International
PADI
Planetary Choir Foundation Corals
Practical Action
Project Reefkeeper
ReefBase
Reef Check
Reef Relief
Reefwatch
Seacology
SECORE
Singapore Underwater Federation
Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology
Tubbataha Foundation
Wildlife Conservation International
WWF
Reefs in the past
Reefs Ancient coral
Throughout Earth's history, a few thousand years after rigid skeletons have been developed by marine organisms, there were almost always reefs. Development times were much the Middle Cambrian (513-501 Ma), Devonian (416-359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359-299 Ma) due to Order Rugosa corals extinct, and Upper Cretaceous (100-65 Ma) and all Neogene (23 Ma – present), due to the Order Scleractinia corals.
Not all reefs in the past were formed by coral reefs: the Cambrian Early (542-513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with a cone shape, probably related to sponges) and end of period Cretaceous (100-65 Ma), when there was also reefs formed by a group called rudists bivalves, one valve formed the main structure and the cone valve, much less acted as a buffer.
See also
Ecology portal
Marine Biology
List of environmental problems
Notes
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^ "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – Coral Sea New Discovery at Mission Deep NOAA-supported". www.noaanews.noaa.gov. http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090305_coral.html. Retrieved May 11 … About the Author

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